Moctezuma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma II) was the ninth emperor of the Aztec Empire reigning from 1502, or 1503, to 1520. Moctezuma II was born into an oligarchy where a council of elders selected the previous emperor's successor through merit rather than kinship. Choosing the path of warrior-priest during his early life, Moctezuma was chosen by the council of elders to be the successor of Ahuitzotl in 1502. During his reign, he dissolved the council of elders and consolidated his power, expanded the Aztec Empire to its greatest size, and the first contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. However, he was killed during the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire as his empire crumbled under the pressures of the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.
Wahunsenacawh (also called Powhatan for the name of one of the tribes under his rule) was the leader of an alliance of Algonquian-speaking Native Americans (the Powhatan Confederacy) living in the tidewater region of Virginia during the settlement of Jamestown. The Confederacy's agricultural system assured them bountiful harvest, excess supplies in case of emergency use, and (through providing food to the colony) at one point prevented famine within Jamestown. Through prudent leadership and goodwill, he provided the basis for coexistence between the Powhatan Confederacy and the English which including trading of goods until his death in 1618.
Popé or Po'pay was a Tewa religious leader from Ohkay Owingeh (San Juan Pueblo to the Spanish) who led the Pueblo Revolt in 1680. The Spanish colony in the area had been established in 1598 and became increasingly more oppressive to the indigenous tribes in the area. This included forcing the Native Americans (called the Pueblos by the Spanish) in abandoning their own religion and adopting Christianity by missionaries and exploitation of native labor by participants of the encomienda system. Encomienda was a slave labor system where the Spanish Crown would grant colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor to indigenous tribes of the area.
Popé, an opponent of the Spanish regime, engineered a coordinated attack on the Spanish in 1680. The revolt began on August 10th and by August 20th surviving Spanish and some Native Americans loyal to the Spanish fled to El Paso. He urged the destruction of all vestiges of Christianity and promised prosperity once the Pueblos native religion was destroyed. However, drought, internal dissension, attacks from neighboring tribes, and Popé's death in 1690 led to the Spanish reconquering the area between 1692 and 1694.
Atahualpa (also know as Atawallpa, Atabalica, Atahuallpa, and Atabalipa) was the effective last ruler of the Incan Empire. Initially, Atahualpa accepted his his half-brother, Huáscar, as emperor and Atahualpa was appointed as governor of Quito. This peace deteriorated and the two brothers fought each other in the Inca Civil War from 1529 to 1532. Atahualpa was victorious in the civil war, but, around this same time, Francisco Pizzaro and other Spanish conquistadors arrived in the region.
Atahualpa was captured by Pizzaro in November of 1532 during an ambush. In exchange for a promise of release, Atahualpa arranged for the execution of his brother. Once his brother was executed, the Spanish accused Atahualpa of treason and conspiracy against the Spanish Crown. He was executed in July of 1533. Atahualpa's other brother, Manco Inca Yupanqui, was installed as the emperor by the Spanish before fighting with them and establishing a Neo-Inca State in the mountains of Vilcabamba. Manco's successors would rule for almost 40 years before the last Inca stronghold was decimated in 1572.
Born March 3, 1394 in Portu, Portugal, the third surviving son of King John (João) I and Queen Philippa, Prince Henry (Henrique) was better known as Henry the Navigator. He earned his title despite not venturing on many expeditions himself. Henry funded and planned expeditions to satisfy his curiosity, expand the territory and wealth of Portugal, and to spread Christianity. His actions sparked Europe’s age of exploration, which connected the world's people. But his efforts also began the process of European colonization, capitalism, and, ultimately, the transatlantic slave trade.
Although Jacques Cartier is known as the European discoverer of the St. Lawrence River and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, historians differ as to the importance of his explorations. He explored the waterway as far as anyone had done previously and did not explore further when he had the opportunity to. He did determine the river was not a passage to India, and claimed the gulf and valley of the St. Lawrence for France. Although colonization would not occur for years after his death, Cartier did establish the future center of the French effort in North America.
After playing a prominent role in the conquest of Nicaragua and Peru, Hernando de Soto led the 1539-1542 expedition exploring what became the southeastern United States and was the first European to discover the Mississippi River. His expedition was well organized and included not only soldiers but artisans who could build boats and bridges. However, de Soto was a plunderer and not a builder. His expedition made no effort to settle or colonize; nor did it even attempt to exploit the natural resources of the region. He was willing to reach his quest for riches at any cost including the lives the indigenous people he encountered. Their lives were worth little to him and, although he considered Christianization of the Indians one of his expedition’s responsibilities, he did little to achieve it.
Vasco Da Gama was the first European during the Age of Discovery to reach India by sailing around Africa. His voyage culminated decades of Portuguese efforts at exploration and began Portugal’s era as a spice empire. The years 1498 to 1945 consisted of Europe’s navies dominating Asian coastlines, which further resulted in European control of the Asian economy and politics. As a result, da Gama and his successors were able to create a vast spice empire in spite of vigorous Muslim and Hindu resistance. Only similarly and even more heavily armed European rivals, the Dutch, were able to dislodge the Portuguese from their monopoly of the spice trade. It was da Gama’s good fortune to be at the right place to obtain the assignment that would make his name live forever.